The City of Today

                    Glorious, glorious England. As the Empire spreads some say "so does its glory"; others mumble of the price which we
                    pay for our greatness. Many of us Londoners have read, if not discussed, the intriguing debate transpiring between Sir
                    Andrew Ure and Sir James Phillips Kay. Are the cities of great England truly representative of the jewels in Her
                    Majesty's Crown? Or are they the stain of exploitation and abuse that some have proclaimed?

                    Sir James Phillips Kay, an M.D. at Edinburgh and the Secretary to the Manchester Board of Health, has recently
                    published a work titled, "The Moral And Physical Conditions of the Working-Class Employed in Cotton Manufacturing in
                    Manchester." (Kay/Ure Debate, Handout) He argues quite persuasively about those poor wretches living in the most
                    hideous of conditions. Half the blame he attributes to the Irish and the other half to the environment of an industrialised
                    city. The Irish immigrants have brought to Manchester a system called "cottier farming". Sir James argues that this system
                    is responsible for the "demoralisation and barbarism" of the working-class. If that is not bad enough, the potato has been
                    introduced as a main article of food. Influenced by the Irish subsistence living, the working-class are abandoning those
                    values which promote increasing comfort. They seemingly have given up the hope of betterment and adopted
                    hopelessness.

                    Sir James does well in his description of the living conditions of the working class is living in. The mere thought of such
                    suffering and misery is shocking to the soul. The problem Kay argues, is caused by combinations of poor living and
                    working conditions, lack of education, influence by a lesser culture and the presence of great immorality. This recently
                    published work is a plea to the Capitalist, to convince him to concern himself with his workers.

                    Andrew Mearns, another prominent fellow on these matters goes into even greater detail in his work, "The Bitter Cry of
                    Outcast London". Making a study of our city, he has reported, with astonishing detail, that the filth present in Manchester
                    can be found in this city! Mr. Mearns makes his argument to the church in his call to unite and fight this growing misery
                    together. He cites examples of immorality, poverty and heart-breaking misery. His call also addresses the need for the
                    state to intervene on the behalf of the organisations trying to elevate the working-classes' misery.

                    What can be done for the motherless children, diseased and ailing siblings and the poor forced into thievery for filthy
                    lucre? Nothing! Yes, that is correct. We are to do nothing. Sir Andrew Ure, an M.D., who teaches in the university at
                    Glasgow is a proponent of this controversial mind set. Traveling to these various "terrible" places, Sir Andrew came to a
                    completely different conclusion. First, the workers suffering is being greatly exaggerated. Upon visiting these "horror
                    zones" (factories), both on announced and unannounced visits, no such extremes were found. Instead of the finding the
                    bleak picture Sir James and Mr. Mearns painted, Ure found something quite the opposite. Children play outside in
                    playgrounds during their breaks, and factories provide a safe haven for the children from the ill-use of their bad parents. 

                    Second, the terrible food situation is an exaggeration as well. The amount of food given to the factory workers is
                    sufficient. It is comparable, if not surpassing to that food consumed in the rural communities from where the working class
                    came from. What is to be the conclusion of this bitter argument? one thing is certain, the Kay/Ure debate will continue
                    with us as long as we have factories with a working class. This much can be assured. 19th Century Evangelical
                    Christianity In England Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the
                    Son and of the Holy Spirit. Matthew 28:19

                    Religion was an important facet of the British Victorian society. It molded public opinion, dictated morals and values, and
                    created social divisions. The dominant religion of the middle-class during this time was Evangelical Christianity. This essay
                    will discuss the relationship between Evangelicalism and the middle-class. It will also argue how Evangelicalism affected
                    the attitudes towards different races and the role of the British empire in the world. Evangelicalism was the strongest
                    ideological influence present in the Victorian Age. This religious movement , a product of the Church of England, was
                    mainly comprised of the middle-class bourgeoisie. In addition, the leadership of the Evangelical movement was greatly
                    influential in politics. As high-ranking members of the Whig party, they played a crucial part in both policy making in the
                    government and establishing the party's power base.1

                    The most important leaders of the Evangelicals were the Clapham Sect. They had two basic issues which acted as both a
                    political platform and a social order. The first issue concerned the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in England.
                    Many political battles were fought over the issue of slavery and its trade, but its abolition in the early 1800s was a great
                    political and social victory for the Evangelicals.2 The second issue was its was the Evangelical transformation of national
                    morality. Catharine Hall argued that in the Clapham sect the "concern was to redefine the available cultural norms and to
                    encourage a new seriousness and respectability in life."3 This issue was supported and propagated as if it were a political
                    campaign. Pamphlets, the media and church sermons in church were used to spread this word. 

                    The greatest influence of Evangelicalism was on the British society itself. It set standards for defining family and home-life.
                    A crucial aspect of Evangelicalism was its definition of a woman's role in society. They defined a women as a
                    homemaker, a wife and a mother. Detailed instructions on how to become a good "mistress" were easily accessible. An
                    excellent example of this was the writings of Isabella Beeton. She went into detail about what attitudes and habits a
                    mistress should have. Mrs. Beeton argued that "there is no more fruitful source of family discontent than a housewife's
                    badly-cooked dinners and untidy ways."4 The Evangelicals rejected the notion of equality between the sexes. This
                    Evangelical belief stemmed from a fundamental difference in the position of men and women. They were "naturally
                    distinct".5 Evangelical doctrine also argued that, although a woman should be educated, it is for the sole purpose of
                    making her a better wife and mother.6 

                    This idea of sexual equity and other radical ideas emerged from France even before the infamous Revolution took place.
                    The ideology coming from France both before and after the revolution was never accepted in England. The English
                    bourgeoisie used the evangelical ideas to combat the foreign influence of the French 

                    Another important sphere of influence to Evangelicalism was the home. This arena was viewed as the building block of
                    British society and culture. If national morality was to be changed, and in some cases created, then morality must be
                    taught at home. The home "was one place where attempts could be made to curb sin."7 

                    Evangelicalism was not merely a national fad. As the Clapham Sect and other influential politicians began their campaign
                    for the abolition of slavery, the slave trade was also targeted. This created the need for international intervention. It was
                    not enough that slavery was to cease being a legal commodity of labor, or to be viewed as immoral. The entire industry of
                    the slave trade was immoral. It was seen as a infringement on the individuals natural rights. In the book, White Dreams In
                    Black Africa, the British empire began to target the African tradesmen who sold the slaves for Christianization. The plan
                    was to export the greatest gift the English could give, thus creating a moral society, educated, and most importantly, the
                    elimination of the slave trade. This gift was Evangelical Christianity.

                    Africa was not the only target for evangelism. The Irish, who were predominantly catholic, united with England January 1,
                    1801. This unification caused Irish culture to be spread abroad in the working class of England. This spread of Irish
                    influence was described by James Phillips Kay as, "debased alike by ignorance and pauperism".8 He blamed the
                    penetration of British culture by Irish values as the cause for the debauchery and immorality in the working class. This
                    posed as a proverbial splinter in the lion's paw for the evangelicals. This was brought to the attention of the middle-class
                    moralists, which tried even harder to "persuade" their moral standards on the Irish. 

                    This persuasion came about by the merging of the Church of England with the Catholic Church of Ireland. The national
                    church was Anglican by denomination and protestant. Needless to say, the Irish were not happy with the arrangements
                    nor with the tithe that they were required to pay.9 In conclusion, England during its Victorian Age was tremendously
                    influenced by religion. This influence dominated the society and culture of Britain. Its effect can be traced from the home
                    and family life to the heirachy of the Parliament. The relationship between Evangelicalism and the English middle-class was
                    strong. It also affected the Empire's attitudes towards other races of people and defined some of its foreign policy
                    concerning the slave trade.

                    Ireland and England in the Active Union 1801-1920

                    January 1, 1801 Ireland joined with Britain in what is called the Active Union. The Active Union was an attempt of both
                    states to integrate themselves on a political level. This union lasted approximately 120 years and was wrought with
                    constant turmoil. A common term used by British Members of Parliament was the "Irish question", or what to do with the
                    Irish. The real question, however, concerned the identity of Ireland. Was Ireland a Integral part of Britain or another
                    British colony? An analysis of this union revealed three basic areas of contention that shed light on this topic: politics,
                    religion and economics. These areas show that parity between the two states was never achieved. This essay will address
                    the question of identity in the special case of Ireland and its engagement with Britain during the Active Union.

                    The political problem of the Active Union was the unequal nature of the agreement. Both parliaments passed the
                    amendment which stipulated a dissolving of the Irish parliament. Upon this elimination of the Irish parliament, 100 elected
                    M.P.s were sent to England for Irish representation. Parliament consisted of 615 members and required majority voting
                    for bills to be passed. The Irish were proclaimed to be equal partners, but, in reality, were grossly out-numbered.
                    However, no other colony possessed direct representation of its people in Parliament.

                    The British law stated that only protestants were allowed to sit for government. Ireland's population was 80 percent
                    catholic and 20 percent protestant. This restriction of representation of the religious majority in Ireland furthered the
                    inequality of the union. Ireland's true political desires were neither voiced nor given much attention. In the Empire the head
                    of government and most of the local government administrations were British and protestant. The English never attempted
                    to make the Irish, English citizens, which would have given them equality in the Empire. In fact, the common British
                    interpretation of their relationship with Ireland was understood in terms of occupation.

                    These facts identified a severe disparity between the two states. The political aspects clearly pointed to a unique form of
                    colonization of Ireland which was established with Ireland's consent. Thus, Ireland as a political entity was, by all means
                    and purposes, a colony of England.

                    The area of Religion related directly to society . Religion helped form national identity, social order and morals/ethics. As
                    previously stated Ireland's population was predominantly catholic. Upon merging, parliament voted that the "national"
                    church of the two states was to be the Church of England. This specific church was of the Anglican Denomination and
                    protestant. As a result, the Irish population was subjected to mass conversion by the English. Further, the Church of
                    England imposed a tithe on the Irish peasantry. This behavior was categorized as belligerent and was not congruent with
                    the concept of equal partnership. To force religion or any other ideal on a society does not promote peace nor does it
                    exemplify equality.

                    The economic relationship between Ireland and England was severely unbalanced. Ireland's economy is 80 percent
                    agrarian. The Active Union caused no growth in the Irish Industrial sector. In fact, Irish industrial production, per capita,
                    receded. Creating a free trade zone, which had been done by the Active Union agreement, put the ailing Irish industry into
                    direct competition with England's enormous industrial sector. 

                    Ireland joined the English empire voluntarily, assuming there would be an equitable relationship between the two states.
                    The relationship was to provide political parity, religious cooperation and a mutual economic boom. Consequently,
                    Ireland was reduced to colonial status by superior British power. Ireland was consider to be a colony of England
                    politically, religiously and economically. The result of this union was 120 years of constant political strife and the eventual
                    separation of the two states.
